Phillipps, P. J., and I. M. Held, 1994: The response to orbital pertubations in an atmospheric model coupled to a slab ocean. Journal of Climate, 7(5), 767-782.

Abstract: The sensitivity of an atmospheric GCM coupled to a mixed-layer ocean to changes in orbital parameters is investigated. Three experiments are compared. One has perihelion at summer solstice and a large obliquity; another has perihelion at winter solstice and low obliquity. The first of these is favorable for warm summers; the second for cool summers. A third experiment, with perihelion at summer solstice and the lower value of obliquity, is used to examine the relative importance of the changes in perihelion and obliquity. The eccentricity is set at 0.04 in all cases.

Surface temperature responses are as large as 15°C, with the largest response over North America in summer. Changes in monsoons and Arctic sea ice are consistent with previous GCM studies. A perpetual summer version of the atmospheric model is used to investigate the positive feedback due to soil moisture. Drying of the soil over North America is found to increase the temperature response by approximately 50% and is also essential to the decrease in summertime precipitation in that region. Soil moisture changes also enhance the precipitation response over central Africa, but have little effect on the model's Asian monsoon.

The orbital parameters most favorable for expansion of the Northern Hemisphere glaciers, that is, minimal seasonality, do not produce permanent snow cover. Several model deficiencies that act to accelerate the melting of snow in spring may be responsible.