Sarmiento, J. L., J. R. Toggweiler, and R. Najjar, 1990: Ocean carbon-cycle dynamics and atmospheric pCO₂. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 325A, 3-21.

Abstract: Mechanisms are identified whereby processes internal to the oceans can give rise to rapid changes in atmospheric pCO₂ . One such mechanism involves exchange between the atmosphere and deep ocean through the high-latitude outcrop regions of the deep waters. The effectiveness of communication between the atmosphere and deep ocean is determined by the rate of exchange between the surface and deep ocean against the rate of biological uptake of the excess carbon brought up from the abyss by this exchange. Changes in the relative magnitude of these two processes can lead to atmospheric pCO₂ values ranging between 165 p.p.m. (by volume) and 425 p.p.m. compared with a pre-industrial value of 280 p.p.m. Another such mechanism involves the separation between regeneration of alkalinity and total carbon that occurs in the oceans because of the fact that organic carbon is regenerated primarily in the upper ocean whereas CaCO₃ is dissolved primarily in the deep ocean. The extent of separation depends on the rate of CaCO₃ formation at the surface against the rate of upward mixing of deep waters. This mechanism can lead to atmospheric values in excess of 20,000 p.p.m., although values greater than 1100 p.p.m. are unlikely because calcareous organisms would have difficulty surviving in the undersaturated surface waters that develop at this point. A three-dimensional model that is being developed to further study these and other problems provides illustrations of them and also suggests the possibility that there is a long-lived form of non-sinking carbon playing a major role in carbon cycling.